Prostitution how does the current law and society treat women who are prostitutes - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 11 Words: 3166 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Analytical essay Level High school Tags: Prostitution Essay Did you like this example? Prostitution how does the current law and society treat women who are prostitutes? Prostitution is apparently the oldest profession in the world but equally it is one of the most denigrated and disparaged professions in the world. The stereotype of a prostitute is a downtrodden woman, probably with a drug habit, who ran away from home as young girl, could not find another way to make a living and somehow became trapped in a world she can never get away from. This may be because she does not know anything else or because her pimp has terrified her into continuing to sell herself for small amounts of money, most of which she gives to him to keep her à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"safeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Prostitution: how does the current law and society treat women who are prostitutes?" essay for you Create order To compound the stereotype, there is the idea that prostitution causes wider criminal behaviour and the spreading of sexually transmitted infections and so if prostitution were to cease to exist there would be less crime and fewer incidences of HIV. Though as a general rule, people, including professionalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s[1], consider the health risks to the general pubic and the crimes perpetrated against the general public rather than the crimes perpetrated against sex workers. As it is, prostitution per se is not illegal but associated activities are, consenting adults are actually able to participate in a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"cash for sexà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ transaction if they chose. It is how that transaction is arranged that the legislation makes reference to. Soliciting, procurement and kerb crawling are all illegal and have been for a long time, but convictions for these offences have dropped dramatically in the last fifteen years[2]. There are now further offences of trafficki ng[3] but in that offence the prostitutes are generally seen as the victims and society tends to be more sympathetic towards the women who become involved in prostitution via organised crime rather than their own desperate circumstances and lack of choices. While it is accepted that the true figures for those involved in prostitution in can never be accurately established because much of the industry is hidden, the Home Office estimates that there are around 80,000 people involved in prostitution[4]. This figure comprises of those who work on the street, in brothels, via escort agencies and also those who profit from prostitution without being involved in the act itself. It is not made clear how this figure is divided into involvement and gender but it is probably fair to assume that the majority of the people involved in the actual act are women. Additionally, one paper quotes that there are 2000 young prostitutes working in the UK and a third of those are under 16[5], in that i nstance, who should the law treat as the criminal, the prostitute or the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"customerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢? The nature of a sexual act is not different because money has changed hands so presumably, a teenaged prostitute is as much a victim of abuse as any other minor who is engaged in a sexual act by an adult. However, notwithstanding the legislative position, the notion of prostitution is always going to evoke strong feelings from those within and outside the profession. How many prostitutes admit to how they make a living? Further, how many choose not to admit it because of public opinion rather than fear of the neighbours reporting her to the police? A prostituteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s character is almost always going to be called into question either by those who believe sex to be an expression of love, a necessity for procreation or because the idea of handing over cash in an alleyway in return for a sexual favour makes sex sordid and cheap. There is of course an opposi te to this view, such as that proposed by Harris, that receiving à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"financial or materialà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ rewards for sex is not wrong, but a person being forced to do so through à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"economic, social or personal pressuresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is. Harris further suggests that it is typical of the British way of thinking that somebody who does such a personal act for gain rather than love of the act itself is considered of a lesser character than the amateur[6]. Whether such a simplistic argument, whatever the merits of it, would suffice to explain the vehement opinions of the masses against this issue remains to be seen. In 2004 the Government published à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Paying the Priceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[7], a Consultation Paper on prostitution produced on the premise that a new à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"realistic and coherent strategyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is needed to deal with the prostitution, consequences it has on the individual and the wider community. Why this was pro duced after the Sexual Offences Act 2003 received the royal assent is unclear, however, it seems slightly perverse to amend legislation relaying to an issue and then ask questions about how to deal with that issue later. Some of the issues highlighted in the Paper were the nuisance caused to communities such as noise litter and harassment, the undermining effect or neighbourhood renewal and economic regeneration, the spread of sexually transmitted infections, links with drug abuse, child prostitution, grooming via the internet, social exclusion of prostitutes, impact on prostitutes families, increased criminal behaviour such as robbery and the effects on gender inequality. Although there is nothing to suggest that these were listed in any kind of order of importance it is interesting that nuisance towards neighbours and the detrimental effect on economic regeneration were first and second on this list, particularly as public sympathy towards prostitutes is notoriously low. Turnin g now towards the legislation, previously the definition of the so called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"common prostituteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ was a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"woman who engages for reward in acts of lewdness with all and sundryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ [8]. Under the Sexual Offences Act 2003 (the 2003 Act) the definition of a prostitute is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"a person (A) who, on at least one occasion, and whether or not compelled to do so, offers or provides sexual services to a person in return for payment or promise of payment to A or a third personà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[9], the word à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"commonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ does not appear in this definition thankfully. Until the 2003 Act was enacted, sexual offences were legislated for under Sexual Offences Act 1956 (the 1956 Act) and Sexual Offences Act 1985 (the 1985 Act), an obviously unsatisfactory situation. Social attitudes towards prostitution have changed dramatically since that time and so the legislation was virtually antiquated in terms of public opinion. A brief synopsis of the law relating to prostitution is useful at this point, under the 1985 Act a man commits an offence if he solicits a woman for the purpose of prostitution from a motor vehicle in a public place or in a street or public place while in the immediate vicinity of a vehicle he has just got out of[10]. A man also commits an offence if he persistently solicits a woman in a street or public place for the purposes of prostitution[11] and under the 1956 Act it was an offence for a man to persistently solicit or importune in a public place for immoral purposes[12]. Under s. 1 Street Offences Act 1959 it is an offence for a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"common prostituteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to loiter or solicit in a public place for the purposes of prostitution. The 2003 Act has created new offences relating to prostitution and it is purported that the legislation focuses on prosecuting those who exploit prostitutes, such as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"pimpsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and those who operate brothels. It is apparent that the Government are now turning towards criminalizing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"agentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of prostitution, the cynic may suggest that this has more to do with recovering the proceeds of crime via the Assets Recovery Agency rather than protecting prostitutes, but that does not make prostitutes any safer. Prostitutes are aware that the activities associated with prostitution are illegal yet they continue to work, are they to be expected to refrain from working under a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"pimpà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ because that is illegal, more pertinently, are prostitutes going to feel able to report the activities of a pimp when by necessity they will have to report themselves as prostitutes, bringing them to the attention of the authorities? The specifics of the above changes are as follows. Under s. 24 it was an offence to detain a woman on any premises for the purposes of unlawful sexual intercourse or against her will in a brothel. Under s. 28 i t was offence to cause or encourage the prostitution of a girl under sixteen and under s.29 to cause the prostitution of a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"defectiveà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ girl. These sections have all been replaced; offences relating to child prostitution are dealt with sections 47 51[13]. Under the 2003 Act a person commits an offence if he causes or incites a person to become a prostitute in any part of the world for the expectation of gain for himself or a third person[14] and if he intentionally controls the activities of another person in relation to that persons prostitution in any part of the world in the expectation of gain for himself or another person[15]. Both of these offences are triable either way and can result in a prison sentence of up to seven years if found guilty upon indictment. There is no dispute that some of the acts that prostitutes are asked to perform are what many people would consider à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"deviantà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and prostitutes are used in t hese circumstances because the males involved would not dream of asking their long term partners to perform such acts. Furthermore, they may also be acts that the woman would not dream of carrying out if a partner asked her to do so within their relationship and are therefore acting under duress when consenting to such an act for financial rewards. As unpleasant as this may seem you cannot legislate for the sexual desires of people who employ prostitutes, therefore, the legislation is always going to be ineffectual up to a point because it can only ever deal with attempting to manage prostitution. In all honesty, it is difficult to imagine a prostitute ever being fully protected as they will always be, up to a point, at the mercy of the person paying them to fulfil their desires. What would protect prostitutes would be a safer working environment, better access to health care and a well publicised programme that helps people to leave the profession if they wish to. The overhaul o f sexual offences legislation was an opportunity for the Government to create à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"tolerance zonesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, where prostitutes could work in groups, away from residential areas, in well lit areas that the police could control[16]. Or, more radically, legalise prostitution and allow the profession to be properly regulated. Farley believes that underneath the legalisation of prostitution lies the acceptance that prostitution is inevitable which it is not[17]. However, it is, prostitution is apparently the oldest profession in the world, the UK sex industry alone is worth  £1 billion per year[18] if that does not point towards the fact that people are willing to pay for sexual gratification then nothing will. Therefore, if prostitution is inevitable why not do what ever is necessary to make it safe for women to be prostitutes? In addition to the failures of the 2003 Act to properly protect prostitutes, it has to be said that the protection it attempts to pr ovide with one hand, it takes away with the other. The focus of legislation surrounding prostitution is supposedly on minimising the exploitation of prostitutes, making the agents the focus of criminal attention, yet the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 allows for prostitutes to be penalised for working as prostitutes via the imposition of an Anti-Social Behaviour Order (ASBO) if their behaviour causes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"harassment, alarm or distressà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to the public. In order to demonstrate the effect that this can have, consider the case of the Manchester prostitute Joette Lydiate who has been banned for soliciting anywhere is England and Wales[19]. Ms Lydiate now faces up to five years imprisonment should she breach this order, but what help has she been offered to allow her to move away from that life? It is a known fact that the reason most prostitutes have worked for such a long time is because they know little else and they have found themselves in a cycle that they can not break. As Sanders[20] has commented, the main effect that imposing an ASBO on a prostitute has is driving them further underground and therefore in to even more dangerous situations as the women work later at night, alone rather than in pairs, and they are more likely to take any work that comes their way rather than consider the risks and then make a choice. They do this because they have to in order to earn a living. Sanders also makes the point that it is nearly always the female prostitute who is served with the ASBO, not the pimp who is exploiting her or the kerb crawlers who perpetuate the necessity for prostitution as a profession. If this is to continue, the 2003 Act will do little to protect prostitutes and may even have the opposite effect because they will be become even more hidden than they already are and as such much more vulnerable. As human rights have become a much bigger issue in recent years so has the issue of prostitution and human rights. Mackinnon h as been quite forthright on the subject of prostitution as an abuse of human rights[21] claiming that it is a tolerated form of slavery despite the fact that slavery was abolished 200 years ago. If this argument were to be accepted in the UK that would render prostitution incompatible with Article 4 of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA), the prohibition of slavery and enforced labour. She also suggests that as prostitutes are often raped, forced to carry out various acts that are degrading and humiliating and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"subject to cruel and brutal treatment without human limitsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ they are tortured, if this argument is accepted this makes prostitution incompatible with Article 3 HRA, the prohibition of torture. Additionally, keeping a woman against her will in a brothel would also be incompatible with Article 5, the right to liberty and security. While this argument may be supportable in terms of those who are forced into prostitution either by another person or soci al or financial circumstances it does not take any account of those women who choose to enter into prostitution as a viable means of supporting themselves and their family and therefore Article 8, the right to respect for private and family life. Mackinnon is not alone in viewing prostitution as a violation of human rights, which is not really surprising. Another group of authors carried out a study in five different countries and concluded that prostitution is an act of violence against women and a human rights violation that can, and in many cases does, result in post-traumatic stress disorder[22]. The study showed that the majority of those in prostitution are poor women who have entered into prostitution on the back of sexual abuse as a child and prostitution as a vocation is seen as a reasonable job for a poor uneducated woman to perform, but not for a more à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"respectableà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ middle class woman to become involved. Again while it is easy to see the arguments that enforced prostitution is a violation of human rights, this study still does not consider those who opt into prostitution via their own free will. While these women may make up the minority of the profession, they still exist, as difficult as it may be to comprehend that a woman would chose to sell her body for financial reward, it does happen. In conclusion, while the 2003 Act purports to make the exploitation of prostitution the target of legislation it still does not go far enough to protect prostitutes. The Government has had the opportunity to pilot à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"tolerance zonesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in larger cities where prostitution is prevalent and has declined to do so thus far. Such zones are operated not with the intention of condoning prostitution but providing a safer environment for prostitutes to operate in. Cracking down on the exploitation of prostitutes is all well and good but it is not merely a prostitutes earnings that need to be protected it is t he woman as well. If the Government were to trial tolerance zones they would surely see a sharp decline in the number of rapes, assaults and murders of prostitutes, it might also encourage them to come forward when they have been attacked. Or to take it one step further, as we have seen, prostitution per se is not illegal, therefore, why not decriminalise the associated offences as well and focus on regulating exploitation of prostitutes via trafficking and forcing people into prostitution against their wishes? Obviously this would be a very controversial step and the legislation would have to be very clear on exactly what the boundaries are but it would at least provide protection for women who are currently forced to work in dark alleyways and have unprotected sex with strangers. The reality is that prostitution is not going be the first choice for most women, Mackinnon asks à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"If prostitution is a free choice, why is it the women with the fewest choices are the one s most often found doing it?à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[23] and this is a pertinent question, however, in order to solve that problem you have to solve much wider issues in society. Poverty, lack of education, abuse within the home, drug dependency and racism all contribute towards women entering prostitution and all of these are issues that have to be addressed, but this will take a lot of time and an global effort, in that case, it is better to improve the conditions of those working in the sex industry now, while also working on giving women more choices so they can leave the industry when they want to, or never feel it necessary to become part of it. Bibliography: Articles: Farley, M., Bad for the Body, Bad for the Heart: Prostitution Harms Women Even If Legalised or Decriminalised, Violence Against Women, (2004), 10, 1087 1125 Farley, M. et al, Prostitution in Five Countries: Violence Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Feminism and Psychology, (1998), 8(4), 405 426 Farley , M. Kelly, P., Prostitution: A Critical Review of the Medical Social Sciences Literature, Women Criminal Justice, (2000), 11(4), 29 64 Brewer, D. et al, Prostitution the Sex Discrepancy in the in Reported Number of Sexual Partners, Proceedings of the National Academy of the Sciences in the USA, (October 2000), 97(22), 12385 12388 MacKinnon, C.A., Prostitution Civil Rights, Michigan Journal of Gender and Law, (1993), 1, 13- 33 Sanders, T., Anti-Social Behaviour Orders: the Impact of New UK Legislation on Street Based Sex Workers, https://www.nswp.org/safety/unvaw-0504/unvaw-0504-09.html Books: Harris, J., The Value of Life An Introduction to Medical Ethics, (Routledge: 1985), pp 281 Government Publications: Home Office, Paying the Price: A Consultation Paper on Prostitution, (July 2004) Cusick, L Martin, A., Home Office Research Study 268: Vulnerability and Involvement in Drug Use and Sex Work, (Home Office: November 2003) World Wide Web: https ://www.amnesty.org.uk https://bbc.co.uk https://coe.int/T/E/Human_Rights/Trafficking/ www.cps.gov.uk https://guardian.co.uk https://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/ www.manchester.gov.uk https://www.nswp.org/safety/unvaw-0504/unvaw-0504-09.html https://www.prostitutionresearch.com https://www.un.org.uk Footnotes [1] Farl Far [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23]

The Importance Of A Civic Engagement Opportunity As A...

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Anthropology Essays †The Origin of Medicine Free Essays

string(72) " of narcotics or other depressants until the Roman period \( 30 BC \) \." The Origin of Medicine Ancient Egyptian Medicine CAIRO, APRIL 2008: Ancient Egyptian civilisation has contributed important developments to all sorts of human cognition, and medical specialty is non an exclusion. Ancient Egyptians used to name a physician a â€Å"physician† mentioning to an active, a professional and a wise individual. A doctor was able to cover with what might go on during day-to-day pattern every bit aptly as a countryside general practician would make today. We will write a custom essay sample on Anthropology Essays – The Origin of Medicine or any similar topic only for you Order Now The physician’s occupation was non merely to go to ill people and to urge a intervention but besides a doctor would fix and distribute medicine. The doctor was normally a priest and possibly with good cognition of other humanistic disciplines. Ancient Egyptians were the first known people to hold had a elaborate survey of medical specialty and to go forth written records to depict the healing patterns. The oldest Egyptian medical texts day of the month back about to 2000 B.C. These texts were moderately free of the magician attack to handle unwellness. The earliest known doctor in history was Hesyre, who was the â€Å"Chief tooth doctor and Physician† of King Djoser in the twenty-seventh Century BC. The earliest known female doctor was besides an Egyptian. Peseshet practiced medical specialty during the period of the 4th dynasty ( 2600 B.C ) . Her rubric was â€Å"Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians† . Equally good as practising medical specialty, Peseshet had a supervisory place and graduated many accoucheuses at the ancient medical school in Sais ( Sa el-Hagar today ) . Concept of the human organic structure: Ancient Egyptians tried to apologize and understand the physiology of the human organic structure. Given how of import River Nile was for life, Ancient Egyptians would say similitude to the flow of the mighty river and to how it irrigated the Fieldss. They assumed the human organic structure, by analogy, had channels that flowed with blood, breathed air and H2O. Peoples would fall ill if a obstruction to these channels happened. For illustration, they believed that bad nutrient would bring forth gases, which in bend would barricade these channels. They, hence, assumed that most of the diseases were because of improperly digested nutrient. Impressions of physiology and disease focused on the bosom as the centre of the homo. The bosom was one’s spouse ; it spoke to a individual in his or her purdah. It was at the same clip the engine of all the bodily work, non merely circulation. From the bosom, continued channels ( Metu ) linked all parts of the organic structure together. Metu did non mention merely to blood vass, but besides to the respiratory tubing, canals of assorted secretory organs, spermous canal, the musculuss, sinews and ligaments. The Goddess of medical specialty ( Sekhmet ) : Sekhmet was originally the warrior Goddess of Upper Egypt. Ancient Egyptians figured her as a lioness, the fiercest huntsman known to them. They believed that her pant created the waterless part beyond the Nile Bankss, and considered Sekhmet the defender of all Pharaohs. The name Sekhmet became synonymous to the Goddess of Medicine during the Middle Kingdom. Therefore, doctors, tooth doctors and veterinary practicians were the â€Å"Priests of Sekhmet† . The caput of lioness symbolized power and the supreme divinity of mending. The priests of Sekhmet were the specializers in medical specialty and surgery. Medical preparation: Students learned the medical profession at schools called the â€Å"Houses of Life† . 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Many doctors were priests and some were Scribes as shown in rubrics like â€Å"Chief doctor and Scribe of the word of God† . Physician ranks were an ordinary doctor ( like a general practician of today ) , a senior doctor, an inspector, an superintendent and a â€Å"Master† of medical specialty. The Chief Physicians of the South and North were like curates of wellness. Royal and castle doctors had particular ranks and rubrics. A practicing doctor had to larn the scientific discipline of drug readying and medicative workss. Ancient Egyptians held handling doctors in so much high esteem that they raised Imhotep ( the great doctor, 2700 BC ) after decease to a sacred position of the God of Medicine. Ancient Egyptian remedies: Because of old impressions of physiology and disease, laxatives had a important topographic point in Egyptian remedies. Ingredients included fresh algarroba bean, Castor oil and colocynth. Bulk laxatives of bran, figs and fresh fruits were besides in usage. Doctors used Ca carbonate and figs as alkalizers. They besides used soured milk and honey to assist digestion. They mixed aggressive cathartics with â€Å"anticholinergics† such as Hyoscyamus ( atropine ) or carminatives as Cuminum cyminum, Chinese parsley and batch. Carob ( pulverization tasted like cocoa made from cods of a certain tree ) and gypsum ( calcium sulphate pulverization ) were effectual antidiarrheal remedies. Egyptian doctors treated bosom conditions non as efficient, because the Egyptian doctors had trouble separating bosom and tummy symptoms. They recommended aloe, mustard, willow, Hyoscyamus and Punica granatum ( incorporating glycosides or utile vasodilatives ) . Diuretic drugs included Apium graveolens dulce, beer, algarroba bean and powdery day of the months. Analgesics were few and restricted to carminatives or spasmolytics. Ancient doctors used effectual febrifuges as salt, alum and willow. However, no grounds exists to the usage of narcotics or other depressants until the Roman period ( 30 BC ) . You read "Anthropology Essays – The Origin of Medicine" in category "Essay examples" Treatment of musculoskeletal upset was topical with warm patchs, cataplasms or rubefacients ( medical specialties to blush and warm the tegument, known today as counter- thorns ) like mustard, gum terpentine, retem and olibanum. The Egyptians used Apium graveolens dulce for painful articulations ( it is still in usage today as antirheumatic drug ) . They used Crocus sativus to handle backache. Doctors and accoucheuses used gynaecological medicines to excite labour, command construct or infection. They used common wormwood ( a bitter gustatory sensation works ) for catamenial upsets and diaphragms of crocodile droppings to function as preventive ( the sourness is spermicidal ) . They recommended interpolation of juniper oil to excite labour ( now known to increase uterine contraction and launch labour ) . Ancient Egyptians have known parasitic infestations ; nevertheless, they did non acknowledge that bilharzia ( Bilharzias ) caused the haematuria ( blood in piss ) they described. Antihelminthic dugs based on Punica granatum, common wormwood, thyme and Sb, followed by a cathartic, controlled unit of ammunition worms and cestodes infestations. Antiseptics and disinfectants were effectual. Egyptian doctors used phenols as thyme ( basil ) and bitumen ; intoxicants were beer and fermented grapes juice. They besides used minerals as Zn, Sb and Cu as styptics assorted in a medium for even distribution. For cough, they recommended mixtures of honey, acacia and Sb with aromatic inspiration. Egyptian doctors used ammi visnaga ( incorporating a bronchodilator khellin ) to handle asthma. Egyptian doctors treated oculus infections with antiseptic of Cu and honey, placed on the palpebras or in the oculus. They used acacia, algarroba bean and milk as demulcents for ophthalmic remedies. Skin demulcents as acacia gum and works mucilage were popular. Doctors used Balanites oil, Castor oil and goose fat to command skin infections. They mixed these ingredients with salt, malachite or ochre and used the mixture for patchs. Ladanum treated dandruff. For phalacrosis, they used fats, oils and, symbolically, porcupine quills. For Burnss, they applied an antibacterial mixture of gum terpentine, Cu, oils and honey. To advance healing, they used Aloe vera. Pharmacy in Ancient Egypt: Pharmacy did non be as an independent profession in Ancient Egypt, but a compelling grounds exists of the Egyptians had professional protocols and criterions. The based the interventions conceptually, restricted by limited cognition of physiology. The footing of most medical specialties was herbs and veggies. Doctors used drugs in the signifier of pills, unctions and beads. They besides used dressings and deodorant readyings. Ancient Egyptian doctors did non hold a formulary ( book of standard drugs ) . Alternatively, the medical papyri fulfilled the undertaking of a formulary. Medicines were proper and effectual that BPC ( British Pharmacopeia ) 1911 included 25 per centum of the available drug substances stemmed from Ancient Egyptian medicines. Recommendation of a remedy, readying and dose pointed to awareness of possible benefits and dangers, without grounds of available formal respect to toxicity or contraindication to the medicines used. An Egyptian doctor could merely divert from a given intervention after four yearss, proposing singular protocol criterions. The statement that placebo of Ancient Egyptian medicine was greater than the curative value appears untrue. What we grasp from Ancient Egyptian history marks a society aware of the demand for health care and intervention. Doctors used a diverse scope of works, animate being and mineral ingredients to this terminal. It is true that faith influenced Ancient Egyptians day-to-day life and so had to be intrinsic to medical pattern, yet as written in the medical papyri, documented rational intervention predominated that supported by supplications. Some remedies from celebrated veggies and herbs: Garlic: Believed to give verve, sooth flatulency and aid digestion. Egyptian doctors used garlic as a mild laxative and shrivel haemorrhoids ( hemorrhoids ) . During constructing the pyramids, supervisors delivered garlic daily to workers to give them verve and strength needed to transport on and execute good. Onion: Doctors used onions to forestall colds, conveying about sweat, sooth sciatica and as a diuretic. Priests did non hold onions as neither nutrient nor medical specialty. Cumin: It is widely available in Egypt ; doctors used it to increase the enteric gesture and to handle flatulency. Doctors who were handling joint achings assorted Cuminum cyminum with wheat flour, Chinese parsley and H2O to use as a cataplasm on the hurting articulation. Parsley and benne: Doctors used any as a good water pill. Mustard: The utilizations of mustard were to arouse purging and to alleviate thorax achings. Coriander: The utilizations of Chinese parsley were many. It helped with loss of appetency, absent menses ( non because of gestation ) , a laxative and aphrodisiac. Ancient Egyptians believed that Chinese parsley has antifungal belongingss and deters insects. This is the cause of happening in Tutankhamen’s Tomb. The oldest medical text editions: The Ancient Egyptians recorded the medical information we are cognizant of in 12 papyri written in priestly book. They show the comparative edification of medical specialty in Ancient Egypt, consistence of pattern and length of service of remedies. The most of import papyri from the point of view of the elaborate description of unwellnesss and intervention are: The Ebers Medical Papyrus: This papyrus is 23 pages long and is largely an internal medical specialty mention. It includes anatomical and physiological mentions every bit good. It describes 876 formulas and 400 different drugs. The Ebers Papyrus consists of a list of recommendations for nutriments such as lesions, tummy ailments, gynaecological jobs and skin annoyances. The Scribe calculated the sums of ingredients for a medical specialty harmonizing to fractions based on parts of Horus oculus. Until today, the RX symbol on each prescription refers to the Eye of Horus. For some unknown ground the Scribe who wrote it did non complete the papyrus, and ended in midsentence. The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus: This papyrus is, possibly, the work of a physician associated with a pyramid-building work force. This five metres papyrus trades chiefly with jobs such as broken castanetss, disruptions and oppressing. The doctor divided the 48 instances documented into classs: â€Å" An complaint which I will handle † , â€Å" An complaint with which I will postulate † and â€Å" An complaint non to handle † . It described symptoms of each of the documented instances, urging possible remedies. The Physician who wrote the papyrus was cognizant of blood circulation throughout the organic structure. The Scribe clearly recognized that patient’s pulsation reflects the status of the bosom. This papyrus includes a huge experience in bone hurts that can happen merely during edifice of the pyramids. Similar to Edwin Smith papyrus, few paragraphs had rubrics. However, all paragraphs included the phrase: â€Å" If you examine a patient with a†¦ , † a feature, which marks how close it is to the Edwin Smith Papyrus. This suggests that antediluvian Egyptian doctors recognized that scrutiny is indispensable to place the unwellness. Yet, the Scribe in both papyri did non advert the chances of the diseases. The Kahun medical papyrus1900 BC The oldest yet discovered, dating from the epoch of Amenemhat II. The Kahun Medical Papyrus describes methods of naming gestation and the sex of the unborn. It besides describes odontalgia during gestation, diseases and assorted complaints of females, and concerned with the uterus and finding of birthrate. The gynaecological text lies in 34 paragraphs, of which the first 17 have a common format. They start with a rubric followed by a brief description of the symptoms, normally, of a job of the generative variety meats. The 2nd subdivision begins on the 3rd page, and includes eight paragraphs, which, because of both the province of the bing transcript and the linguistic communication, are about unintelligible. The 3rd subdivision ( paragraphs 26-32 ) dealt with the proving for gestation. The 4th and concluding subdivision contains two paragraphs, which do non fall into any of the old classs. The first describes intervention for odontalgias during gestation. The 2nd describes what soun ds like a fistulous withers of the vesica to the vagina with incontinency of urine † . It besides described methods of contraceptive method. It described prescriptions for urinary, venters and kidney jobs, hurting limbs and achings in the sockets of the eyes. Did Ancient Egyptians recognize forensic medical specialty? Ancient Egyptians used to analyze organic structures of the dead to understand the cause of decease. This should non look unusual for such people traditionally familiar, as they were, to careful chase of cognition. Harmonizing to the American historiographer James H. Breasted ( an authorization on ancient Egyptian history-University of Chicago, 1930 ) , portion of the accomplishment of the ancient Egyptian sawboness was because of what they learned from analyzing the dead organic structures. Surgeons treated clean lesions were by sewing and adhesive patchs. They treated other lesions by acquiring the borders near on the first twenty-four hours, and afterwards handling them with honey and acerb herbs. Egyptian sawbones performed amputations and even more made prosthetic device. The influence of Ancient Egyptian Medicine on the remainder of the universe: The Ancient Egyptians were the first people in the universe to hold based cognition on careful and sharp observations, every bit good as test and mistake. By careful observation, early doctors began mending patterns that they have taught to many. They had a medical pattern that developed over three thousand old ages and gave much toward progressing medical scientific discipline worldwide. Egyptian doctors were celebrated in the Ancient World. Ramses II had sent doctors to the male monarch of Hatti and the Iranian male monarch Achaemenids. Greeks gained medical traditions and footing of cognition from the medical schools of Egypt ( Hamilton: The History of Medicine, Surgery and Anatomy. P. 35 ) . Therefore, Egyptian theories and patterns influenced the Greeks, who educated many of the doctors in the Roman Empire, who in bend influenced Arab and European medical thought for centuries to come. One can clearly detect the bequest of Egyptian medical specialty in few basicss of the Grecian strategy ( Breasted 1930 ) . Grecian medical specialty developed during the 6th to seventh centuries B.C. The first Grecian doctor learned the art at Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period ( 305-330 B.C. ) . The Egyptian thought of decay [wekhedu] may hold resurfaced in the [perittoma] ( infective digestive residues ) of the Alexandrine Greeks. Other characteristics adopted by the Greeks from the Egyptians included several medicative workss, how to compose drug prescriptions, the pattern of prenatal and gynaecological fumigations, and the mending value of temple slumber. How to cite Anthropology Essays – The Origin of Medicine, Essay examples

The Scientific Method free essay sample

Based on the information in Table 2, the patterns I observed were that were 2ppm of Dissolved Oxygen added each time and there was 1 fish less than the amount of Dissolved Oxygen, then 4 fish less, then 3 fish less, then 4 fish less, than 5 fish less. I think that the fish can handle the amount of Dissolved Oxygen to an extent then the population falls, but then starts to build back up. I also think that if the population is a bigger number than the amount of Dissolved Oxygen, the population of fish will fall. 2. Hypothesis: If the amount of fish in a lake is higher than the amount of Dissolved Oxygen, then the population of the fish will fall and the fish will die. 3. My experimental approach for this hypothesis would be to put gradually increase the amount of Dissolved Oxygen as well as increasing the amount of fish in the lake until the amount of fish is higher than the amount of Dissolved Oxygen to see if the population of the fish will still increase or if it will decrease. The switch seems to be operating judging by feel and sound of the clicking noise as the switch is operated. I look up and do indeed see a bulb screwed into the light fixtured. It appears that the light should come on when the switch is activated. The third part of the scientific method would be to state a hypothesis: If I replace the light bulb with a new one, then the light should come on. I then acquire a new bulb from the pantry and attempt to execute my expierement. The new bulb also did not come on when the switch was activated. Since I have replaced the old bulb with a known new and operational bulb, I know the bulb is not the problem.Since my hypothesis did not appear to be true, I must come up with another: If I replace the switch, then the light should come on. At this point, I know that electricity is flowing into the structure and there is an operationally known bulb now in the fixture. The only variable could be the switch which is responsible for interrupting the current flow in order to control the light. I proceed to replace the switch and after it is replaced, viola, the light comes on. My second hypothesis was true and the switch was the problem to the dark entry.The next problem is a problem that the scientific method can be applied to and that we all can relate to: ? The car will not start when the key is turned. The scientific method indicates that one must first state the problem which is that nothing happens when the ignition key is turned in order to crank the car. Upon opservations, none of the interior lights of the car are coming on either. The car does make a clicking sound when the key is turned which indicates that there is some electricity in the battery.A hypothesis: If I replace the battery in the car, then the engine should rotate and start. After executing the hypothesis and replacing the battery, the engine does start and runs. The engine runs form quite some time but then dies and the same problems as stated in the observations appear again. Since the battery is now know to be good, we know that this is not the problem. Upon further research, the recharging system in the car could be bad and is not recharging the battery.A new hypothesis: If I replace the alternator, then the battery should stay charged and the car should always start right up. After the battery has been charged and the alternator has been changed, the car starts up and runs as well as the battery showing signs of being recharged. These two examples of the scientific method show that the method is used to continuously dissect situations until the correct problem or observation is noticed and can be addressed by the person using the method.The scientific method is still used today by many scientists. To say we can live without science is to say we can live without air to breath. Science embodies everything we humans come in contact with everyday of our lives. Most of us go through our daily lives and do not pay any attention to science but it is still always there. The following is a typical day in my life and the science that I come in contact with.